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Ethiopia is in East Africa and has a population of 36 million that is 56 percent Christian (Orthodox).  Life expectancy is 42 years. At an elevation of 4,500 feet above sea level, the country is made up of forest and grasslands. The weather is pleasant in the dry season (November--May), but it rains heavily during the other five months.  The ruggedness of the mountain terrain limits the Amhara�s access to the Gospel.  Of the rural Amhara, 85% live a day�s walk from any established road.  Most Amhara can neither read nor write.  The life of the Amhara is very hard.  They eke out a bare living by farming and raising a few head of sheep, goats and cattle.  They plow their fields and thresh their grain by oxen, sow seed and harvest crops by hand. Their homes are made of wood, straw, mud and dung, and have dirt floors.  The women cook over a fire and carry large water pots.  The people walk everywhere, carrying their loads or using donkeys as beasts of burden.  Children share in the labor, many as shepherds or in tending the smaller children.

Ethiopia is the oldest independent country in Africa and one of the oldest in the world. Christianity was introduced in the fourth century by Syrian Christians, which gave birth to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Emperor Haile Selassie ruled from 1929 until he was deposed by communist revolutionaries in 1974. The revolutionary government collapsed in 1991, and the shape of the emerging government is democratic, with individual freedoms to be guaranteed by a constitution. The social and economic consequences of the communist government are very evident in Ethiopia with extreme poverty throughout the country and lack of social services. Ethiopia compares in size with Texas, Oklahoma, and New Mexico combined. Major physical features are rugged mountains, plateaus, and fertile valleys leading to her nickname as the "Switzerland of Africa." Of her 58 million, 85% live in rural areas; one-half of the people are under 15 years of age. There are 70 ethnic groups with at least 65 languages and dialects, but Amharic -- the official language -- is spoken by 60% of the people. Ethiopia is the only country in Africa that has an alphabet native to Africa. Some estimate that 50% of the people are Christian in name. A majority who claim to be Orthodox are in fact animists (i.e., follow traditional African religions). One medical doctor per 113,000 people, so malaria, tuberculosis, and typhoid are widespread. The capital city of Addis Ababa, population 3+ million, has all of the opportunities and problems of any major urban center.

The Beta Israel are part of a large group of peoples known as the Agau. Normally they are classified as a subgroup within the larger Kemant (Qemant) people. But, traditionally they have been enemies of the Kemant and much more thoroughly Hebraized. Because the Falasha resisted subjugation to the Amhara in the late nineteenth century, they were totally defeated and dispersed, unlike the more pagan Kemant. But the subsequent attempt to enforce Christianization and Amharization failed with the Falasha, whereas the Kemant have almost completely adjusted to becoming a "Christian" people with the Orthodox church. The Anglican church's Ministry Among the Jews has worked among the Falasha since 1860. Any Falasha converts are referred to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church for membership and training. Many desire to become Christians because of the social and economic pressures of the Orthodox Amhara culture surrounding them. They are without a distinctively Falasha Church, however, and growth is slow. They are essentially being asked to assimilate to the dominant Amhara population.

Most of the Ethiopian Jews reside in Gondar an area founded by Emperor Fasilidas around 1635, is famous for its many medieval castles and the design and decoration of its churches. Flanked by twin mountain streams at an altitude of more than 2,300 meters Gondar commands spectacular views over farmlands to the gleaming waters of Lake Tana thirty-five kilometers to the south. The city retains an atmosphere of antique charm mingled with an aura of mystery and violence. The main castle was built in the late 1630s and early 1640s on the orders of Fasilidas. The Emperor, who was greatly interested in architecture - St Mary's in Axum was another of his works - was also responsible for seven churches, a number of bridges, and a three-storey stone pavilion next to a large, sunken bathing place, rectangular in shape, which is still filled during the Timkat season with water from the nearby Qaha river. Source:  http://www.ethiopiafirst.com/Tour/Gondar_Hist1.html

Jews have lived in Ethiopia since the First Temple period, and local residents disparagingly called them "Falashas", meaning exiles and foreigners. They inhabited some 500 villages primarily in the regions of Gamdar, Quara, Balasa, Lasata, Dembiah, Gondar, Armachu, Vagra, Volkayat, Sameen and Tigre.
The history of the Beta Israel, or Amharic Jews, begins with the grassroots Jewish reaction to the conversion of the Solomonic Dynasty. Many of the Jewish people resisted the new religion and would not follow their political and spiritual leaders in conversion. Persecution broke out among these renegade Jews and so the name, "Falasha" was born. The term means, "those who flee" and the Falasha had to start fleeing rapidly.

Denounced by the Ethiopian Christian Orthodox (ex-Jewish) Monarchy, the Beta Israel were no longer allowed to own land and were pushed to the rim of society. They became social outcasts and were reduced to peasants. There were numerous wars between the Falasha and the Monarchy. The greatest defender of the Jewish people was a woman named Judit, who succeeded in overpowering the Monarchy for a season. But after her days, the Monarchy was restored and the Jewish people were crushed further. The Ethiopian resistance was pushed into the rural areas of the Ethiopian highlands in the North, around the city of Gonder, as far north as the Simien Mountains. These were the traditional homelands of the Beta Israel until the Modern Period.

Of late, the Jewish people have largely left their ancient homelands and have either been airlifted to Israel in Operation Solomon or have moved to compounds in Addis Ababa or Gondar to await Israeli extraction. However, a significant smattering of Jewish people still remains in the original homeland areas. 

After taking office in 1977, Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin was eager to facilitate the rescue of Ethiopia's Jews, and so Israel entered into a period of selling arms to the Mariam government in hopes that Ethiopia would allow Jews to leave for Israel. In 1977, Begin asked President Mengistu to allow 200 Ethiopian Jews to leave for Israel aboard an Israeli military jet that had emptied its military cargo and was returning to Israel. Mariam agreed, and that may have been the precursor to the mass exodus of Operation Moses began.

In the early 1980's, Ethiopia forbade the practice of Judaism and the teaching of Hebrew. Numerous members of the Beta Israel were imprisoned on fabricated charges of being "Zionist spies," and Jewish religious leaders, Kesim,(sing. Kes) were harassed and monitored by the government.

The situation remained exceedingly bleak through the early 1980's. Forced conscription at age 12 took many Jewish boys away from their parents, some never to be heard from again. Additionally, with the constant threat of war, famine, and horrendous health conditions (Ethiopia has one of the world's worst infant mortality rates and doctor to patient ratios), the Beta Israel's position became more precarious as time progressed.

The government began to slightly soften its treatment of the Jews, however, during the mid-1980's when terrible famines wreaked havoc on the economy. Ethiopia was forced to ask Western nations for famine relief, including the United States of America and Israel, allowing them both to exert a modicum of pressure for the release of the Beta Israel.

Over 8,000 Beta Israel came to Israel between 1977 and 1984. But these efforts pale in comparison with the modern exodus that took place during 1984's Operation Moses.

Operations Moses and Joshua

Under a news blackout for security reasons, Operation Moses began on November 18, 1984, and ended six weeks later on January 5, 1985. In that time, almost 8,000 Jews were rescued and brought to Israel.

But the mission was not without problems. Because of news leaks (blamed primarily on a December 6 article in the Washington Jewish Week and full page advertisements placed by the United Jewish Appeal), the mission ended prematurely as Arab nations pressured the Sudanese government to prevent any more Jews from using Sudan to go to Israel. Almost 15,0000 Jews were left behind in Ethiopia.

Thus, by the end of Operation Moses in January 1985, almost two-thirds of the Beta Israel remained in Ethiopia. They were comprised almost entirely of women, young children, and the sick, since only the strongest members of the community were encouraged to make the harrowing trek to Sudan where the airlift actually occurr. In addition, many young boys were encouraged to make the dangerous trek to freedom due to the low age of conscription, often as young as age twelve.

As Babu Yakov, a Beta Israel leader, summed up, "Those who could not flee are elderly, sick, and infants. Those least capable of defending themselves are now facing their enemies alone."

In 1985, then Vice President George Bush arranged a CIA-sponsored follow-up mission to Operation Moses. Operation Joshua brought an additional 800 Beta Israel from Sudan to Israel. But in the following five years, a virtual stalemate occurred in the rescue of Ethiopian Jewry. All efforts on behalf of the Beta Israel fell on the closed ears of the Mariam dictatorship.

Meanwhile, those Jews who did escape during Operation Moses were separated from their loved ones while attempting to adjust to Israeli society. The new arrivals spent between six months and two years in absorption centers learning Hebrew, being retrained for Israel's industrial society, and learning how to live in a modern society (most Ethiopian villages had no running water or electricity). Suicide, all but unheard of in their tukuls in Ethiopia, even claimed a few of the new arrivals due to the anxiety of separation and departure.

Over 1,600 "orphans of circumstance" lived day to day separated from their families, not knowing the fate of their parents, brothers, sisters, and loved ones.

Operation Solomon�The Fulfillment of a Dream

The grim prospect of thousands of Jewish children growing up separated from their parents in Israel almost became a reality. Little could be done to persuade the Mariam government to increase the trickle of Jews leaving Ethiopia in the years between Operations Joshua and Solomon. But in November 1990, Ethiopia and Israel reached an agreement that would allow Ethiopian Jews to move to Israel under the context of family reunification. It soon became clear, however, that Mengistu was willing to allow Ethiopian Jews to leave outside of the guise of reunification. November and December, 1990, showed increased numbers of Ethiopians leaving for Israel. The Ethiopian Jews were finally ready to come home.

In early 1991, Eritrean and Tigrean rebels began a concerted attack on Mengistu forces, meeting with surprising success for the first time since the civil war began in 1975. With the rebel armies advancing each day, Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam fled his country in early May. Rebels claimed control of the capital Addis Ababa shortly thereafter, and the situation of the Beta Israel took top priority in Israel. The Likud government of Yitzhak Shamir authorized a special permit for the Israeli airline, El Al, to fly on the Jewish Sabbath. On Friday, May 24, and continuing non-stop for 36 hours, a total of 34 El Al jumbo jets and Hercules C-130s�seats removed to accommodate the maximum number of Ethiopians�began a new chapter in the struggle for the freedom of Ethiopian Jewry.

Operation Solomon, named for the king from whom one of the theories suggest that the Beta Israel draw their lineage, ended almost as quickly as it began. Timing was crucial, since any delay by Israel could have allowed the rebels to hold the Jews as bargaining chips with Israel or the United States. A total of 14,324 Ethiopian Jews were rescued and resettled in Israel, a modern exodus of the grandest design. Operation Solomon rescued twice the number of Jews in Operation Moses and Joshua, in a mere fraction of the time. Though it is too early to predict their impact on Israeli society, the 36,000 Ethiopian Jews now living in Israel (rescue efforts are under way to transport the remaining 2,100 Ethiopians who wish to emigrate to Israel) will play an important role in Israel for generations to come.

Authentic Jews

Because much of the Beta Israel's history is passed orally from generation to generation, we may never truly know their origins. Four main theories exist concerning the beginnings of the Beta Israel community:

1) The Beta Israel may be the lost Israelite tribe of Dan.

2) They may be descendants of Menelik I, son of King Solomon and Queen Sheba.

3) They may be descendants of Ethiopian Christians and pagans who converted to Judaism centuries ago.

4) They may be descendants of Jews who fled Israel for Egypt after the destruction of the First Temple in 586 BCE and eventually settled in Ethiopia.

(Excerpted from "Reunify Ethiopian Jewry," World Union of Jewish Students)

Judaism is found in an archaic form among some 28,000 Falasha (Black Jews) in the region of Gondar, north of Lake Tana, as well as in isolated communities near Addis Ababa. There is no unanimity of opinion regarding the origin of the Falasha, although it has been well established that they date back some 20 centuries and were probably converted to Judaism by the large number of Jews who emigrated to Ethiopia between the 1st and 7th centuries AD. They have resisted assimilation in a remarkable way and still scrupulously observe the Sabbath and the Mosaic rituals. Their liturgical language is Ge'ez, but they also use many Hebrew words in their prayers. Prior to the creation of the state of Israel, the Jews of Palestine built dispensaries for them and 13 primary schools, training their headmasters in Palestine. Nevertheless, it was not until 1972 that the 2 chief rabbis of Israel recognized them officially as Jews and descendants of the tribe of Dan. At the same time it was suggested that they needed to be 'converted' since they do not observe all the rites of present-day Judaism. The state of Israel does not extend to the Falasha the benefits of its Law of Return in the same way as it does to other Jews throughout the world, and only about 250 Falasha have succeeded in emigrating to Israel since 1967. In addition to the Falasha, there are also about 500 foreign Jews in Ethiopia.

The origin of the term "Falash Mura" is unclear. A census of converts was conducted in the early 1980's in Ethiopia and the Jew who helped with the work called them faras muqra, an Arabic phrase that literally means "crow horses." Another explanation was that the term came from the Agau and means "someone who changes their faith." The Falash Mura did not refer to themselves as Beta Israel until after the Jews had begun to immigrate to Israel.

The Falash Mura were virtually unknown until Operation Solomon, when a number attempted to board the Israeli planes and were turned away. The Falash Mura said they were entitled to immigrate because they were Jews by ancestry, but the Israelis saw them as non-Jews, since most had never practiced Judaism and were not considered by the Beta Israel as part of the community.

Ethiopian Jewry activists maintained that the Falash Mura had been forced to convert or had done so for pragmatic reasons without ever really abandoning their Jewish faith. The North American Conference on Ethiopian Jewry (NACOEJ) began to provide aid to the group in Addis that had not returned to their homes after being left behind during Operation Solomon. Once food and medical care became available, more Falash Mura left their villages for Addis and soon began to overload the meager resources of NACOEJ. The JDC entered the picture and provided additional assistance on a humanitarian basis, without accepting the NACOEJ contention that they were Jews entitled to go to Israel.

As the number of Falash Mura in Addis grew, the Israeli position hardened. The official view was that these people were not Jews and, if they had ever been Jews, it was in the distant past. Most were now practicing Christians who simply wanted to get out of Ethiopia by any means possible and saw an opportunity to escape by claiming to be Jewish and thereby earning the right to immigrate to Israel. The Israelis were convinced this motivation would encourage tens of thousands, perhaps most of the Ethiopian population to claim Jewish heritage. The Israeli government was simply not going to absorb the entire Ethiopian population.

Returning to Judaism

NACOEJ was not content to provide the Falash Mura with basic necessities. From their perspective, the Falash Mura were no different from the Marranos of Spain who practiced Christianity to save themselves from the Inquisition, but retained a Jewish identity. The Falash Mura also viewed themselves as Jews who just needed help to reconnect with their faith. Given the opportunity, the activists argued, they would become practicing Jews.

The Israelis saw the situation differently. They maintained the Falash Mura were committed Christian believers who were being coached to behave like Jews for the sole purpose of getting out of the country. After all, if they were interested in returning to Judaism, why did they wait until it became clear this was a way to escape? The official line was that given the opportunity the Falash Mura would abandon any pretense of being Jews as soon as they arrived in Israel.

Though the Jewish establishment in the United States accepted the Israeli government view, the congregation of growing numbers of Falash Mura in Addis Ababa became increasingly embarrassing. Activists pointed to thousands of poor, starving, sick people who wished only to go to Israel and the argument over their authenticity became secondary to their welfare.

The Israeli government set up a committee in 1992 to resolve the question of the Falash Mura. The committee discovered that 2,000 had succeeded in reaching Israel during Operation Solomon. Some of these people had already demonstrated they had at least one Jewish grandparent and therefore qualified under the Law of Return for automatic citizenship. Some Falash Mura were also allowed to immigrate on the basis of family reunification. Thus, for example, if an Ethiopian Jew married a non-Jew, they would be allowed to bring the non-Jewish spouse's parents with them to Israel. Jews from other countries were usually not permitted to do this. The committee, headed by Absorption Minister Yair Tsaban, decided the Falash Mura should not be allowed to enter Israel under the Law of Return but nevertheless recommended that the refugees in Addis be allowed to come on humanitarian grounds.

A Humanitarian Gesture

Finally, in 1997, all the organizations involved with the Falash Mura decided a solution needed to be found to empty the compounds so no more people would come. The government agreed to a one-time humanitarian gesture to bring to Israel everyone in Addis with some connection to the "seed of Israel." Afterward, the camps were to be closed and future immigration was to be based on the criteria used for immigration from all other countries. The government agreed that would be allowed to come to Israel.

Israel decided the 4,000 Falash Mura then in the capital would be brought to Israel in groups rather than all at once. Though most did not enter under the Law of Return, they received all the benefits of immigrants who did. The only other people who were brought en masse to Israel in such a humanitarian gesture were refugees from Kosovo and the Vietnamese boat people. In 1998, Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu declared the evacuation of the Falash Mura was complete. From that point on, the government said, Ethiopians would only be allowed to immigrate on the basis of the Law of Return.

The government's humanitarian gesture stimulated more Falash Mura to come to Addis in expectation of similar treatment. After an initial estimate of fewer than 10,000 Falash Mura, the number soon ballooned to more than 30,000. As more arrived, conditions worsened, the embarrassment intensified and the activists called for additional humanitarian steps.

The Situation Today

The Israelis find themselves in a no-win situation. They do not want to simply accept unlimited immigration from Ethiopia. They are convinced that tens of thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands of Ethiopians will claim Jewish heritage if they do not follow strict procedures for determining eligibility to immigrate. In the meantime, the large numbers of Falash Mura who settled in camps in Gondar and Addis have created a severe humanitarian problem. They need jobs, shelter, food. These needs cannot be ignored, but, at the same time, if better services are provided, it will only attract more Falasha Mura to the camps.

The Falasha Mura are also in an impossible situation. While Jews virtually everywhere else in the world stay in their homes until they are given permission to immigrate, the Ethiopians uprooted themselves and have nowhere to go. Their land, cattle and homes have been bought or confiscated by their neighbors. It no longer matters why they left, whether by force, coercion or encouragement from activists, they are now living as urban slum dwellers. They will either be cared for by humanitarian organizations, allowed to immigrate to Israel, live a subsistence existence or die.

In early 2001, nearly 20,000 Falasha Mura remained in camps in Gondar and Addis. Approximately 8,000 live in their villages near the camps. The Israelis accelerated their consideration of applications. The first priority was being given to divided families, then those eligible under the Law of Return and finally humanitarian or rare special cases. About one of three applicants was found to be eligible.

Meanwhile, Ethiopian Jews in Israel continue to have mixed feelings about the Falasha Mura. Some feel resentment because they maintained their identity despite the pressures and opportunities while the Falasha Mura did not. Others have relatives among the Falasha Mura and want to be reunited. Meanwhile, Israeli officials say many of the Falasha Mura reverted to their Christian ways as soon as they reached Israel, while the activists insist the opposite is true, that most have converted back to Judaism.

Source: http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Judaism/falashmura.html

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